World and Asian History & Civilizations: LET Reviewer

World and Asian History & Civilizations

Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) Handout Reviewer

Prepared and Compiled by: Mr. Rhey Mark H. Diaz, T1

BSEd Social Studies, Lic. No. 1334242, Exp. June 2020

Chapter 1: Before History

1. The evolution of homo sapiens
1. The hominids
1. Australopithecus
1. Appeared in east Africa about four million to one million years ago
2. Walked upright on two legs; well-developed hands
3. Stone tools; fire later
2. Homo erectus
1. 2.5 million to two hundred thousand years ago, east Africa
2. Large brain; sophisticated tools; definitely knew how to control fire
3. Developed language skills in well-coordinated hunts of large animals
4. Migrated to Asia and Europe; established throughout by two hundred thousand years ago
2. Homo sapiens
1. Evolved as early as two hundred thousand years ago
2. Brain with large frontal regions for conscious and reflective thought
3. Spread throughout Eurasia beginning more than one hundred thousand years ago,
4. Ice age land bridges enabled them to populate other continents
5. The natural environment
1. Homo sapiens used knives, spears, bows, and arrows
2. Brought tremendous pressure on other species
2. Paleolithic society
1. Economy and society of hunting and gathering peoples
1. Economic life
1. Prevented individuals from accumulating private property
2. Lived an egalitarian existence
3. Lived in small bands, about thirty to fifty members in each group
2. Big game hunting with special tools and tactics
3. Paleolithic settlements
1. Natufians in eastern Mediterranean
2. Jomon in central Japan
3. Chinook in Pacific northwest area of North America
2. Paleolithic Culture
1. Neanderthal peoples
1. Europe and southwest Asia between one hundred thousand and thirty-five thousand years ago
2. Careful, deliberate burials were evidence of a capacity for emotion and feelings
2. The creativity of homo sapiens
1. Constructed powerful and flexible languages
2. Accumulate and transmit knowledge to new generations
3. New tools, weapons, and trade networks
4. Venus figurines--fertility
5. Cave paintings of animals--sympathetic magic
3. The Neolithic era and the transition to agriculture
1. The origins of agriculture
1. Neolithic era; new stone age; refined tools and agriculture
1. From about twelve thousand to six thousand years ago
2. Neolithic women began systematic cultivation of plants
3. Neolithic men began to domesticate animals
2. Early agriculture around 9000 B.C.E.
1. Agriculture emerged independently in several parts of the world
2. Merchants, migrants, and travelers spread food knowledge
3. Slash-and-burn cultivation involved frequent movement of farmers
4. Agriculture more work than hunting/gathering but steady, large supply of food
2. Early agricultural society; population explosion caused by surplus
1. Emergence of villages and towns
1. Jericho, earliest known neolithic village
2. Mud huts and defensive walls
2. Specialization of labor
1. Neolithic site of Çatal Hüyük, eight thousand people
2. Prehistoric craft industries: pottery, metallurgy, and textile production
3. Social distinctions, due to private land ownership
3. Neolithic culture; calendars and life cycle deities
4. The origins of urban life
1. Emergence of cities, larger and more complex than villages
2. Earliest cities in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, 4000 to 3500 B.C.E.

Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

1. The quest for order
1. Mesopotamia: "the land between the rivers"
1. Valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
2. Little rain, so area needs irrigation (small scale by 6000 B.C.E.)
3. Food supplies increase
1. Human population increases
2. Migrants to the area increase--especially Semites
3. Sumer (in south) becomes population center
4. First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E.
1. Between 3200 and 2350 B.C.E., they evolve into city-states (control of surrounding region)
2. Governments sponsor building projects and irrigation
3. Attacks by others led to wall building and military development
4. Kingships evolve with cooperation of noble families
2. The course of empire
1. Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
1. Coup against king of Kish
2. Seizes trade routes and natural resources
3. Gradually empire weakens and collapses about 2000 B.C.E.
2. Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
1. Centralizes the bureaucracy and regulates taxation
2. Capital is Babylon
3. Law Code: law of retribution and importance of social status
4. Hittite assault and empire crumbles in 1595 B.C.E.
3. The later Mesopotamian empires
1. Assyrians (northern Mesopotamia), about 1300-612 B.C.E.
1. Cities: Assur and Ninevah
2. Powerful army: professional officers (merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons
3. Unpopular rule leads to rebellions; ends 612 B.C.E.
2. New Babylonian empire, 600-550 B.C.E.
1. Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.)
2. Hanging gardens of palace shows wealth and luxury
2. The formation of a complex society and sophisticated cultural traditions
1. Economic specialization and trade
1. Bronze (made from copper and tin); used in weapons and later agricultural tools
2. Iron (about 1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; used in weapons and tools
3. Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further
4. Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops
2. The emergence of a stratified patriarchal society
1. Social classes
1. Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth
2. Kings (hereditary) and nobles (royal family and supporters) are highest class
3. Priests and priestesses rule temple communities with large incomes and staff
4. Free commoners (peasants), dependent clients (no property); pay taxes and labor on building projects
5. Slaves (POWs, criminals, debt servitude): mostly domestic servants
2. Patriarchy
1. Hammurabi's code: men are head of the household
2. Women get fewer rights after 2000 B.C.E.; by 1500 B.C.E. are wearing veils
3. The development of written cultural traditions
1. Cuneiform, Mesopotamian writing style, becomes standard
1. Reed stylus (wedge-shaped) pressed in clay then baked
2. Mostly commercial and tax documents
2. Education: vocational to be scribe or government official
3. Literature: astronomy, mathematics, abstract (religious and literary like Gilgamesh)
3. The broader influence of Mesopotamian society
1. Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews
1. Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between Mesopotamia and Egypt (second millennium B.C.E.)
1. Settle in some cities
2. Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 B.C.E.
3. Descendents borrow law of retribution and flood story from Mesopotamia
2. Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses
1. Twelve tribes become Israelites
2. Mesopotamian-style monarchs with Jerusalem as capital
3. David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)
3. Moses and monotheism
1. Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers
2. Compilation of teachings into Torah (1000-400 B.C.E.)
4. Assyrians conquer
1. Conquer Israel in north and Judah in south and destroy Jerusalem
2. Deportees return to Judea; become known as Jews (586 B.C.E.)
3. Prophets in this period increase devotion of people
4. Build distinct Jewish community in Judea with strong group identity
2. The Phoenicians
1. First settlers about 3000 B.C.E.; develop into kingdoms of independent city-states
2. Little agriculture; live on trade and communications networks
1. Overland trade to Mesopotamia; influence on culture
2. Sea trade most important; get raw materials, trade for manufactured goods
3. Have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.)
4. The Indo-European migrations
1. Indo-European origins
1. Linguists discover similarities between many languages; they must be related
2. Originate in steppes of central Asia; pastoral people; 4500-2500 B.C.E.
3. Domesticate horses; learn to ride; use horses with carts, then chariots
2. Indo-European expansion and its effects
1. Indo-European society breaks up about 3000 B.C.E.; peoples gradually migrate
2. Hittites settle in central Anatolia about 2000 B.C.E.
1. Build powerful kingdoms
2. Conquer Babylonian empire 1595 B.C.E.
3. Dissolve by about 1200 B.C.E.
4. Technology: light horse-drawn chariots (spokes) and iron metallurgy
3. Some migrate into central Asia by 2000 B.C.E.
4. Other migrations: Greece, Italy, central Europe, western Europe, Britain
1. All pastoral agriculturalists
2. All speak related languages and worship similar deities
5. Later wave of migrations to Iran and India ("Aryan")

Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations

1. Early agricultural society in Africa
1. Climatic change and the development of agriculture in Africa
1. Sahara region used to be grassy steppe lands with water (10,000 B.C.E.)
1. Abundant hunting, fishing, wild grains
2. Eastern Sudan begins to herd cattle and collect grains (9000 B.C.E.)
3. Permanent settlements and the growing of sorghum and yams (7500 B.C.E.)
4. Small states with semi-divine rulers (5000 B.C.E.)
2. Climate becomes hotter and drier after 5000 B.C.E.
1. People are driven into river regions--Nile
2. Annual flooding makes rich soil for agriculture
2. Egypt and Nubia: "gifts of the Nile"
1. Egypt--lower third of Nile River; Nubia--middle third of Nile
2. After 5000 B.C.E. peoples cultivate gourds and watermelons, domesticate donkeys and cattle (from Sudan), and grow wheat and barley (from Mesopotamia)
3. Agriculture easy in Egypt (due to Nile flooding) but more work in Nubia
4. States begin to emerge by 4000 B.C.E., small kingdoms by 3300 B.C.E.
3. The unification of Egypt
1. Strong Nubian realm, Ta-Seti (3400-3200 B.C.E.)
2. Egypt, large and prosperous state by 3100 B.C.E.
1. Menes at Memphis unites Upper and Lower Egypt
2. Pharaoh, absolute ruler and owns all land
3. Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.) and Old Kingdom (2660-2160 B.C.E.)
1. Great pyramids of Giza built during this period; Khufu the largest
2. Violence between Egypt and Nubia (Egypt dominates from 3000-2400 B.C.E.)
3. Nubia later develops into Kingdom of Kush
4. Interaction through diplomacy, Nubian mercenaries, and intermarriage
4. Turmoil and empire
1. Period of upheaval after Old Kingdom (2160-2040 B.C.E.)
2. Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.E.)
3. Nomadic horsemen, Hyksos, invade Egypt
1. Using bronze weapons and chariots (Egypt does not have)
2. Captures Memphis in 1674 B.C.E.
3. Causes revolts in Upper Egypt
4. New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.)
1. Pharaoh gains power, huge army, large bureaucracy
2. Building projects: temples, palaces, statues
3. Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 B.C.E.) built empire including Palestine, Syrian, Nubia
4. Then Egypt falls into a long period of decline
5. Egyptians driven out of Nubia in 1100 B.C.E.
1. Nubian Kingdom of Kush; capital is Napata
2. King Kashta conquers Thebes (in Egypt) in 760 B.C.E.
6. Assyrians with iron weapons invade from the north
7. After sixth century B.C.E. series of foreign conquests
2. The formation of complex societies and sophisticated cultural traditions
1. The emergence of cities and stratified societies
1. Cities are not as prominent in Egypt as in Mesopotamia (agricultural villages)
1. Memphis, head of the delta
2. Thebes, administrative center of Upper Egypt
3. Heliopolis, center of sun god cult
4. Tanis, important sea port on Mediterranean
2. Nubian cities
1. Kerma, dominates trade routes
2. Napata, most prosperous city after Nubian conquest of Egypt
3. Meroë, most influential city after Assyrian invasion because it is farther south
3. Social classes
1. Egypt: peasants and slaves (agriculture), pharaoh, professional military and administrators
2. Nubia: complex and hierarchical society (can tell from tombs)
4. Patriarchy in both but women have more influence than in Mesopotamia
1. Women act as regents, like female pharaoh Hatshepsut
2. Nubia: women serve as queens, priestesses, and scribes
2. Economic specialization and trade
1. Bronze important but copper and tin rare and expensive
2. Iron metallurgy develops independently in Sudan
3. Transportation: sailboats, carts, and donkey caravans
4. Trade networks
1. Egypt and Nubia: exotic goods from Nubia (ebony, gold, gems, slaves) and pottery, wine, linen, decorative items from Egypt
2. Egypt and the north: especially wood, like cedar from Lebanon
3. Egypt with Africa: Punt (East Africa)
3. Early writing in the Nile valley
1. Hieroglyphics found on monuments and papyrus by 3200 B.C.E.
2. Hieratic script, everyday writing 2600-600 B.C.E.
3. Demotic and Coptic scripts adapt Greek writing
4. Scribes live very privileged lives
5. Nubia adapts Egyptian writing until Meroitic in fifth century B.C.E. (has not been deciphered)
4. The development of organized religious traditions
1. Principal gods: sun gods Amon and Re
2. Brief period of monotheism: Aten
1. Pharaoh Akhenaten's idea of a new capital at Akhetaten
2. Orders all other gods' names chiseled out; their names die with him
3. Mummification
1. At first only pharaohs are mummified (Old Kingdom)
2. Later ruling classes and wealthy can afford it
3. Eventually commoners have it too (Middle and New Kingdom)
4. Cult of Osiris
1. Brother Seth murders Osiris and scatters his body
2. Wife Isis gathers him up and gods restore him to life in underworld
3. Becomes associated with Nile, crops, life/death, immortality
4. Osiris judges the heart of the dead against the feather of truth
5. Nubians combine Egyptian religions with their own
3. Bantu migrations and early agricultural societies of sub-Saharan Africa
1. The dynamics of Bantu expansion
1. Bantu--language group from west central Africa
1. Live along banks of rivers; use canoes
2. Cultivate yams and oil palms
3. Live in clan-based villages
4. Trade with hunting/gathering forest people
2. Early migrations of Bantu (3000-1000 B.C.E.)
1. Move south and west into the forest lands
2. Move south to Congo River and east to Great Lakes region
3. Absorb much of the population of hunter/gather/fisher people
4. By 1000 B.C.E. occupy most of Africa south of the equator
3. Features of the Bantu
1. Use canoes and settle along banks of rivers; spread from there
2. Agricultural surplus causes them to move inland from rivers
3. Become involved in trade
4. Bantu rate of migration increases after 1000 B.C.E. due to appearance of iron
1. Iron tools allow them to clear more land for agriculture
2. Iron weapons give them stronger position
2. Early agricultural societies of sub-Saharan Africa
1. Many other societies besides Bantu migrate
2. Spread of agriculture to most of sub-Saharan Africa by 1000 B.C.E.
3. Mostly small communities led by chiefs with "age sets" and initiation rites
4. Religious differences by area
1. Some worship single, impersonal divine force representing good and bad
2. Many individuals pray to ancestors and local gods for intervention
5. Much mixing and intermingling of cultures

Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia

1. Harappan society
1. Background
1. Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E.
2. Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table
3. Also little known because writing not yet translated
2. Foundations of Harappan society
1. The Indus River
1. Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas
2. Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile
3. Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley
4. Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.
5. Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E.
2. No evidence about political system
3. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities
1. Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary
2. Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings
3. Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes
3. Harappan society and culture
1. Social distinctions, as seen from living styles
2. Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility
3. Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward
1. Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis
2. Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes
3. Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.
4. Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E.
5. Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained
2. The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India
1. The Aryans and India
1. The early Aryans
1. Depended heavily on a pastoral economy
2. No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas
3. Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit)
2. The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E.
1. A boisterous period; conflicts with indigenous peoples
2. Called indigenous people dasas--"enemies" or "subject people"
3. Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero
4. Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves
5. Most chiefdoms had leader raja, king
3. Aryan migrations in India: first Punjab and by 500 B.C.E. in northern Deccan
1. Used iron tools and developed agriculture
2. Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms
2. Origins of the caste system
1. Caste and varna
1. The meaning of caste: hereditary, unchangeable social classes
2. The Sanskrit word varna, "color," refers to social classes
2. Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age
1. Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs)
2. Later the category of the untouchables was added
3. Subcaste, or jati
1. Represented more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century B.C.E.
2. Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations
3. Elaborate rules of jati life: eating, communication, behavior
4. In caste system, social mobility difficult but still possible
1. Usually a result of group, not individual, effort
2. Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes
3. Development of patriarchal society
1. Patriarchal and patrilineal society
2. The Lawbook of Manu
1. Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E.
2. Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships
3. Advised men to treat women with honor and respect
4. Subjected women to the control and guidance of men
5. Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household
3. Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre
3. Religion in the Vedic Age
1. Aryan religion
1. Aryan gods
1. War god, Indra
2. Gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease
3. God Varuna: ethical concern, cosmic order
2. Ritual sacrifices were more important than ethics
1. Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices
2. Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power
3. Sacrifices, chants, soma
3. Spirituality underwent a shift after about 800 B.C.E.
1. Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits
2. Dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted
2. The blending of Aryan and Dravidian values
1. The Upanishads, works of religious teachings (800-400 B.C.E.)
1. The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages
2. Brahman: the universal soul
3. Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman
4. Samsara: an individual soul was born many times
5. Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced
6. Moksha: permanent liberation from physical incarnation
2. Religion and Vedic society
1. Samsara and karma reinforced caste and social hierarchy
2. Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations
3. Taught to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice
4. Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet

Chapter 5: Early Society in East Asia

1. Political organization in early China
1. Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty
1. The Yellow River
1. Water source at high plateau of Tibet
2. Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow"
3. "China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding
4. Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work
2. Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E.
1. Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E.
2. Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools
3. The Xia dynasty
1. Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages
2. Established about 2200 B.C.E.
3. Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control
4. Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia
2. The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E.
1. Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm
2. Many written records and material remains discovered
3. Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite
4. Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China
5. Agricultural surpluses supported large troops
6. A vast network of walled towns
7. The Shang capital moved six times
8. Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects
9. Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui
3. The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E.
1. Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang
2. Mandate of heaven, the right to rule
1. The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow
2. Ruler as "the son of heaven"
3. Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers
3. Political organization: decentralized administration
1. Used princes and relatives to rule regions
2. Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers
4. Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E.
5. The fall of the Zhou
1. Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E.
2. Territorial princes became more independent
3. The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)
4. The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E.
2. Society and family in ancient China
1. The social order
1. The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze
1. Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding
2. Administrative and military offices
3. Manuals of etiquette
2. Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites
3. Merchants and trade were important
1. Trade networks linked China with west and south
2. Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands
4. Peasants, the majority of population
1. Landless peasants provided labor
2. Lived in small subterranean houses
3. Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising
4. Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E.
5. Slaves, mostly war prisoners
2. Family and patriarchy
1. Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups
2. Veneration of ancestors
1. Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence
2. Burial of material goods with the dead
3. Offering sacrifices at the graves
4. Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits
3. Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one
1. The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution
2. After the Shang, females devalued
3. Early Chinese writing and cultural development
1. The secular cultural tradition
1. Absence of organized religion and priestly class
2. Believed in the impersonal heavenly power--tian
3. Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers
1. Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks
2. Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s
4. Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph
1. More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones
2. Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing
2. Thought and literature
1. Zhou literature--many kinds of books
1. The Book of Change, a manual of diviners
2. The Book of History, the history of the Zhou
3. The Book of Rites, the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats
4. The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work
2. Most Zhou writings have perished
4. Ancient China and the larger world
1. Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia
1. Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders
1. Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers
2. Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society
3. Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways
4. Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese
2. The southern expansion of Chinese society
1. The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year
2. The indigenous peoples of southern China
1. Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society
2. Some were pushed to hills and mountains
3. Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand
3. The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi
1. Challenged the Zhou for supremacy
2. Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing

Chapter 6: Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania

1. Early societies of Mesoamerica
1. The Olmecs
1. Migration to Mesoamerica
1. Large wave of humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 B.C.E.
2. By 9500 B.C.E., humans reached the southernmost part of South America
3. As hunting became difficult, agriculture began (7500 B.C.E.)
2. Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilies; later, maize became the staple (5000 B.C.E.)
1. Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 B.C.E.
2. No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles
3. Ceremonial centers by the end of the second millennium B.C.E.
4. Olmecs, the "rubber people," lived near the Gulf of Mexico (1200 B.C.E.)
1. Elaborate complexes built
2. The colossal human heads--possibly likenesses of rulers
3. Rulers' power shown in construction of huge pyramids
4. Trade in jade and obsidian
5. Decline of Olmecs: systematically destroyed ceremonial centers by 400 B.C.E.
5. Influence of Olmec: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game
2. Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya
1. The Maya lived in the highlands of Guatemala
1. Besides maize, they also cultivated cotton and cacao
2. Tikal was the most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 C.E.
3. Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims
4. Chichén Itzá, power by the ninth century; loose empire in Yucatan
5. Maya decline began in 800 C.E.; many Mayans deserted their cities
3. Maya society and religion
1. Maya society was hierarchical
1. Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top
2. Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors
3. Professional architects and artisans were important
4. Peasants and slaves were majority of population
2. The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven
3. Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive
4. Religious thought
1. Popol Vuh, a Maya creation myth, taught that gods created humans out of maize and water
2. Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices
3. Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains
5. The Maya ball game: sporting, gambling, and religious significance
4. Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan
1. The city of Teotihuacan in the highlands of Mexico
1. Colossal pyramids of sun and moon
2. High point between 400 and 600 C.E.; two hundred thousand inhabitants
3. Paintings and murals reflect the importance of priests
2. Teotihuacan society
1. Rulers and priests dominated society
2. Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime
3. Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery
4. Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica
5. No sign of military organization or conquest
3. Cultural traditions: ball game, calendar, writing, sacrifices
4. Decline of Teotihuacan from about 650 C.E.; was sacked and destroyed mid-eighth century
2. Early societies of South America
1. Early Andean society and the Chavín cult
1. Early migration to Peru and Bolivia region
1. By 12,000 B.C.E. hunting and gathering peoples reached South America
2. By 8000 B.C.E. they began to experiment with agriculture
3. Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E.
4. Andean societies were located in modern-day Peru and Bolivia
2. Early agriculture in South America
1. Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton
2. Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests
3. By 1800 B.C.E. the people produced pottery, built temples and pyramids
3. The Chavín Cult, from about 900 to 300 B.C.E.
1. Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavín
2. Devised techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets
3. Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy
4. Cities began to appear shortly after Chavín cult
5. Early Andeans did not make use of writing
2. Early Andean states: Mochica (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru
1. Irrigation, trade, military, no writing
2. Artistic legacy: painting on pottery, ceramics
3. Early societies of Oceania
1. Early societies in Australia and New Guinea
1. Human migrants arrived in Australia and New Guinea at least sixty thousand years ago
1. By the mid-centuries of the first millennium C.E., human communities in all habitable islands of the Pacific Ocean
2. About ten thousand years ago, rising seas separated Australia and New Guinea
3. Australia: hunting and gathering until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E.
4. New Guinea: Turned to agriculture about 3000 B.C.E.
2. Austronesian peoples from southeast Asia were seafarers to New Guinea, 3000 B.C.E.
3. Early agriculture in New Guinea: root crops and herding animals
2. The peopling of the Pacific Islands
1. Austronesian migration to Polynesia
1. Outrigger canoes enabled them to sail safely
2. Agriculture and domesticated animals
2. Austronesian migrations to Micronesia and Madagascar
3. Lapita Society from New Guinea to Tonga (1500-500 B.C.E.)
1. Agricultural villages
2. Pottery with geometric designs
3. Networks of trade/communication: pottery, obsidian, shells, tools traded
4. After 500 B.C.E. trade network declined; cultures developed independently
5. Hierarchical chiefdoms; tension led to migration
6. Divine or semi divine chiefs: led public rituals, oversaw irrigation

Chapter 7: The Empires of Persia

1. The rise and fall of the Persian Empires
1. The Achaemenid Empire
1. Medes and Persians migrated from central Asia to Persia before 1000 B.C.E.
1. Indo-European speakers, sharing cultural traits with Aryans
2. Challenged the Assyrian and Babylonian empires
2. Cyrus the Achaemenid (the Shepherd) (reigned 558-530 B.C.E.)
1. Became king of Persian tribes in 558 B.C.E.
2. All of Iran under his control by 548 B.C.E.
3. Established a vast empire from India to borders of Egypt
3. Cyrus's son, Cambyses (reigned 530-522 B.C.E.), conquered Egypt in 525
4. Darius (reigned 521-486 B.C.E.); largest extent of empire; population thirty-five million
1. Diverse empire, seventy ethnic groups
2. New capital at Persepolis, 520 B.C.E.
5. Achaemenid administration
1. Twenty-three satrapies (Persian governors), appointed by central government
2. Local officials were from local population
3. Satraps' power was checked by military officers and "imperial spies"
4. Replaced irregular tribute payments with formal taxes
5. Standardization of coins and laws
6. Communication systems: Persian Royal Road and postal stations
2. Decline and fall of the Achaemenid Empire
1. Commonwealth: law, justice, administration led to political stability and public works
2. Xerxes (reigned 486-465 B.C.E.)
1. Retreated from the policy of cultural toleration
2. Caused ill will and rebellions among the peoples in Mesopotamia and Egypt
3. The Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.)
1. Rebellion of Ionian Greeks
2. Persian rulers failed to put down the rebellion, sparred for 150 years
4. Alexander of Macedon invaded Persia in 334 B.C.E.
1. Battle of Gaugamela, the end of Achaemenid empire, in 331 B.C.E.
2. Alexander burned the city of Persepolis
3. The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid Empires
1. Seleucus inherited most of Achaemenid when Alexander died
1. Retained the Achaemenid system of administration
2. Opposition from native Persians; lost control over northern India and Iran
2. The Parthians, based in Iran, extend to Mesopotamia
1. Power of Parthian was heavy cavalry
2. Mithradates I established a empire through conquests from 171-155 B.C.E.
3. Parthian government followed the example of Achaemenid administration
3. The Sasanids, from Persia, toppled Parthians; ruled 224-651 C.E.
1. Merchants brought in various crops from India and China
2. Shapur I (239-272 C.E.); buffer states with Romans; standoff with Kushan
3. In 651 C.E., empire incorporated into Islamic empire
2. Imperial society and economy
1. Social development in classical Persia
1. Nomadic society; importance of family and clan relationships
2. Imperial bureaucrats
1. Imperial administration called for educated bureaucrats
2. Shared power and influence with warriors and clan leaders
3. Free classes were bulk of Persian society
1. In the city: artisans, craftsmen, merchants, civil servants
2. In the countryside: peasants, some of whom were building underground canals (qanat)
4. Large class of slaves who were prisoners of war and debtors
2. Economic foundations of classical Persia
1. Agriculture was the economic foundation
2. Trade from India to Egypt
1. Standardized coins, good trade routes, markets, banks
2. Specialization of production in different regions
3. Religions of salvation in classical Persian society
1. Zarathustra and his faith
1. Zoroastrianism
1. Emerged from the teachings of Zarathustra
2. Visions; supreme god (Ahura Mazda) made Zarathustra prophet
3. The Gathas, Zarathustra's hymns in honor of deities
4. Teachings preserved later in writing, by magi
5. Compilation of the holy scriptures, Avesta, under Sasanid dynasty
2. Zoroastrian teachings
1. Ahura Mazda as a supreme deity, with six lesser deities
2. Cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil)
3. Heavenly paradise and hellish realm as reward and punishment
4. The material world as a blessing
5. Moral formula: good words, good thoughts, good deeds
3. Popularity of Zoroastrianism grows from sixth century B.C.E.
1. Attracted Persian aristocrats and ruling elites
2. Darius regarded Ahura Mazda as supreme God
3. Most popular in Iran; followings in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt, and more
2. Religions of salvation in a cosmopolitan society
1. Suffering of Zoroastrian community during Alexander's invasion
2. Officially sponsored Zoroastrianism during the Sasanid empire
3. The Zoroastrians' difficulties
1. Islamic conquerors toppled the Sasanid Empire, seventh century C.E.
2. Some Zoroastrians fled to India (Parsis)
3. Most Zoroastrians in Persia converted to Islam
4. Some Zoroastrians still exist in modern-day Iran
4. Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism, Christianity, and later, Islam
5. Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, Judaism also in Persia

Chapter 8: The Unification of China

1. In search of political and social order
1. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and his school
1. Confucius
1. Educator and political advisor
2. Sayings were compiled in the Analects by his disciples
2. Confucian ideas
1. Fundamentally moral and ethical in character
2. Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order
3. Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals"
4. Edited and compiled the Zhou classics for his disciples to study
3. Key Confucian values
1. Ren--a sense of humanity, kindness, benevolence
2. Li--a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to elders
3. Xiao--filial piety, familial obligation
4. Cultivate personal morality and junzi for bringing order to China
4. Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.), spokesman for the Confucian school
1. Believed in the goodness of human nature (ren)
2. Advocated government by benevolence and humanity
5. Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) had a less positive view of human nature
1. Believed that humans selfishly pursue own interests
2. Preferred harsh social discipline to bring order to society
3. Advocated moral education and good public behavior
2. Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism
1. Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature
2. Laozi, founder of Daoism, allegedly wrote the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue)
3. Zhuangzi (compendium of Daoist philosophy)
4. The Dao--the way of nature, the way of the cosmos
1. Elusive concept: an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world
2. Dao is passive and yielding, does nothing yet accomplishes everything
3. Humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao
4. Ambition and activism had only brought the world to chaos
5. Doctrine of wuwei: disengagement from worldly affairs, simple life
6. Advocated small, self-sufficient communities
5. Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism
3. Legalism
1. The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft
1. No concern with ethics and morality
2. No concern with the principles governing nature
2. Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.), chief minister of Qin and Legalist writer
3. Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 B.C.E.) synthesized Legalist ideas in essays
4. Legalist doctrine
1. The state's strength was in agriculture and military force
2. Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts
3. Harnessing self-interest of the people for the needs of the state
4. Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions
5. Advocated collective responsibility before the law
6. Not popular among Chinese, but practical; put end to Period of Warring States
2. The Unification of China
1. The Qin dynasty
1. Qin, Located in west China, adopted Legalist policies
1. Encouraged agriculture, resulted in strong economy
2. Organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons
3. Conquered other states and unified China in 221 B.C.E.
2. The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.)
1. Established centralized imperial rule
2. Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall
3. Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin
4. Burned all books except some with utilitarian value
3. Policies of centralization
1. Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures
2. Standardization of scripts
4. Tomb of the First Emperor, who died 210 B.C.E.
1. Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures
2. Excavation of the tomb since 1974
5. The collapse of the Qin dynasty
1. Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the people
2. Waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court in 207 B.C.E.
3. Short-lived dynasty, but left deep marks in Chinese history
2. The early Han dynasty
1. Liu Bang; persistent and methodical; by 206 B.C.E. restored order
2. Early Han policies
1. Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization
2. Han Wudi, the Martial Emperor (reigned 141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization and expansion
3. Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies
1. Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire
2. Continued to build roads and canals
3. Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries
4. Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt
5. Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats
4. Han imperial expansion
1. Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea
2. Han organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu territory (nomads from steppes)
3. Han enjoyed uncontested hegemony in east and central Asia
3. From economic prosperity to social disorder
1. Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han
1. Patriarchal social structure
1. Women's subordination; Ban Zhao's Admonitions for Women
2. Children obey and honor parents
2. Vast majority of population were cultivators
3. Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons
4. Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han
5. Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material
6. Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E.
2. Economic and social difficulties
1. Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus
1. Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals
2. Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade
2. Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich
3. Problems of land distribution
4. The reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.)
1. Land reforms by the "socialist emperor"
2. Overthrown by revolts, 23 C.E.
3. The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.)
1. Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution
2. Collapse of the Han
1. Factions at court paralyzed the central government
2. Han empire dissolved; China was divided into regional kingdoms

Chapter 9: State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India

1. The fortunes of empire in classical India
1. The Mauryan dynasty and the temporary unification of India
1. Magadha kingdom filled power vacuum left by withdrawal of Alexander of Macedon
2. Chandragupta Maurya began conquest in 320s B.C.E.
1. Founded Maurya dynasty stretching from Bactria to Ganges
2. Kautala's advice manual, Arthashastra, outlined administrative methods
3. Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.)--peak of empire
1. Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, 260 B.C.E.
2. Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy
3. Established capital at Pataliputra
4. Policies were written on rocks or pillars
5. Empire declined after his death because of financial problems
2. The revival of empire under the Guptas
1. Greek-speaking Bactrians ruled in northwest India for two centuries
2. Kushans (nomads from Central Asia) conquered and ruled, 1-300 C.E.
1. High point was Emperor Kashika, 78-103 C.E.
2. Crucial role in Silk Road trading network
3. The Gupta dynasty, founded by Chandra Gupta (375-415 C.E.)
1. Smaller and more decentralized than Maurya
2. Invasion of White Huns weakened the empire
3. After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only
4. Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India
2. Economic development and social distinctions
1. Towns and trade
1. Towns dotted the India countryside after 600 B.C.E.
1. Towns provided manufactured products and luxury goods
2. Active marketplaces, especially along Ganges
2. Trade with Persia, China, Indian Ocean basin, Indonesia, southeast Asia, Mediterranean basin
2. Family life and the caste system
1. Gender relations: patriarchal families, female subordination, child marriage
2. Development of caste system
1. With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared
2. These social groups functioned as sub castes, or jati
3. Vaishyas and shudras saw unprecedented wealth
4. Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant
3. Religions of salvation in classical India
1. Jainism and the challenge to the established cultural order
1. Vardhamana Mahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E.
2. Jainist doctrine and ethics
1. Inspired by the Upanishads: everything in universe has a soul
2. Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss
3. Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things
4. Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans
3. Appeal of Jainism
1. Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality
2. Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati
2. Early Buddhism
1. Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) became the Buddha
1. Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering
2. Received enlightenment under the bo tree
3. First sermon about 528 B.C.E. at the Deer Park of Sarnath
4. Organized followers into a community of monks
2. Buddhist doctrine: the dharma
1. The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering
2. Suffering is caused by desire
3. Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence
3. Appeal of Buddhism
1. Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati
2. Was less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular
3. Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit
4. Holy sites venerated by pilgrims
5. The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and winning converts to the faith
4. Ashoka converted and became important patron of Buddhism
3. Mahayana Buddhism
1. Early Buddhism made heavy demands on individuals
2. Development of Buddhism between 3rd century B.C.E. and 1st century C.E.
1. Buddha became a god
2. The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being"
3. Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals
4. These changes became known as Mahayana Buddhism
5. Educational institutions (like Nalanda) promoted new faith
4. The emergence of popular Hinduism
1. The epics Mahabharata, a secular poem revised by brahman scholars to honor the god Vishnu, the preserver of the world Ramayana, a secular story of Rama and Sita, was changed into a Hindu story
2. The Bhagavad Gita
1. A short poetic work: dialogue between Vishnu and warrior
2. Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation
3. Hindu ethics
1. Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities
2. Lead honorable lives in the world
4. Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism in India

Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase

1. Early development of Greek society
1. Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
1. Minoan society arose on the island of Crete, late third millennium B.C.E.
1. Between 2200 and 1450 B.C.E., was the center of Mediterranean commerce
2. Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt
3. Untranslated form of writing, Linear A, was used
4. By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign domination
2. Mycenaean society: named after important city, Mycenae
1. Indo-European immigrants settled in Greece, 2000 B.C.E.
2. Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script, Linear B
3. Stone fortresses in the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) protected agricultural settlements
4. Overpowered Minoan society and expanded to Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy
3. Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean after Trojan War (1200 B.C.E.)
2. The world of the polis gradually emerged in Greece
1. Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E.
1. Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants
2. Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
2. Spartan society
1. Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
2. Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
3. Athens gradually broadened base of political participation
1. Solon sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
2. Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, and women
4. Athenian society
1. Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens
2. Aristocratic landowners were primary beneficiaries
3. Class tension became intensified in the sixth century B.C.E.
5. Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.), most popular democratic leader of Athens
2. Greece and the larger world
1. Greek colonization
1. Greeks founded more than four hundred colonies
1. Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands and people
2. Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions
3. Stimulated development of surrounding areas
2. Conflict with Persia and its results
1. The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
1. Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia, 500 B.C.E.
2. Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E., is decisive victory for Athens
3. Xerxes tried again to seize Athens; his navy lost battle of Salamis (480 B.C.E.)
4. Persian army retreated back to Anatolia (479 B.C.E.)
2. The Delian League
1. Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
2. When Persian threat subsided, poleis, other than Athens, no longer wanted to make contributions
3. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)
1. Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens and Sparta
2. Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
3. The Macedonians and the coming of empire
1. The kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece
2. Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control
3. Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests
1. By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia
2. Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis, 331 B.C.E.
3. Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther
4. Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three
4. Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Seleucid
1. Antigonid empire: Greece and Macedon
1. Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities
2. Economy of Athens and Corinth flourished again through trade
2. The Ptolemaic empire: Egypt--the wealthiest
1. The rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society
2. Alexandria, capital at mouth of the Nile
3. Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
3. The Seleucid empire: largest, from Bactria to Anatolia
1. Greek and Macedonian colonists flocked to Greek cities of the former Persia
2. Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
3. Bactria withdrew from Seleucids and established independent Greek kingdom
3. The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society
1. Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin
1. Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies
1. Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items
2. Led to broader sense of Greek community
2. Panhellenic festivals (like Olympic Games) became popular
2. Family and society
1. Greek society in Homer's works
1. Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world
2. Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly
2. Patriarchal society was the norm
1. Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses
2. Priestess was the only public position for women
3. Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis
3. Sappho: Talented female poet wrote poems of attraction to women
1. Instructed young women in music and literature at home
2. Critics charged her with homosexual activity (not acceptable for women)
4. Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners
1. Worked as cultivators, domestic servants
2. Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers
4. The cultural life of classical Greece
1. Rational thought and philosophy
1. The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason
2. Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living"
1. Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality
2. Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
3. Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): A zealous disciple of Socrates
1. The theory of Forms or Ideas--world of ideal qualities
2. This world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms
3. His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
4. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms
1. Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments
2. Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information
5. Legacy of Greek philosophy
1. Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until seventeenth century
2. Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians
2. Popular religion and Greek drama
1. Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities
2. Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular
3. Drama was performed at annual theatrical festivals
1. Great tragedians explored the possibilities and limitations of human action
2. Comic drama took delight in lampooning the public figures
3. Hellenistic philosophy and religion
1. The Hellenistic philosophers: search for personal tranquility
1. Epicureans: identified pleasure as the greatest good
2. Skeptics: doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
3. Stoics: taught individuals duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives
2. Religions of salvation spread through trade routes
1. Mystery religions promised eternal bliss for believers; like Cult of Osiris
2. Speculation about a single, universal god emerged

Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase

1. Early development of Greek society
1. Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
1. Minoan society arose on the island of Crete, late third millennium B.C.E.
1. Between 2200 and 1450 B.C.E., was the center of Mediterranean commerce
2. Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt
3. Untranslated form of writing, Linear A, was used
4. By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign domination
2. Mycenaean society: named after important city, Mycenae
1. Indo-European immigrants settled in Greece, 2000 B.C.E.
2. Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script, Linear B
3. Stone fortresses in the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) protected agricultural settlements
4. Overpowered Minoan society and expanded to Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy
3. Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean after Trojan War (1200 B.C.E.)
2. The world of the polis gradually emerged in Greece
1. Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E.
1. Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants
2. Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
2. Spartan society
1. Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
2. Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
3. Athens gradually broadened base of political participation
1. Solon sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
2. Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, and women
4. Athenian society
1. Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens
2. Aristocratic landowners were primary beneficiaries
3. Class tension became intensified in the sixth century B.C.E.
5. Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.), most popular democratic leader of Athens
2. Greece and the larger world
1. Greek colonization
1. Greeks founded more than four hundred colonies
1. Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands and people
2. Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions
3. Stimulated development of surrounding areas
2. Conflict with Persia and its results
1. The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
1. Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia, 500 B.C.E.
2. Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E., is decisive victory for Athens
3. Xerxes tried again to seize Athens; his navy lost battle of Salamis (480 B.C.E.)
4. Persian army retreated back to Anatolia (479 B.C.E.)
2. The Delian League
1. Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
2. When Persian threat subsided, poleis, other than Athens, no longer wanted to make contributions
3. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)
1. Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens and Sparta
2. Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
3. The Macedonians and the coming of empire
1. The kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece
2. Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control
3. Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests
1. By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia
2. Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis, 331 B.C.E.
3. Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther
4. Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three
4. Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Seleucid
1. Antigonid empire: Greece and Macedon
1. Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities
2. Economy of Athens and Corinth flourished again through trade
2. The Ptolemaic empire: Egypt--the wealthiest
1. The rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society
2. Alexandria, capital at mouth of the Nile
3. Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
3. The Seleucid empire: largest, from Bactria to Anatolia
1. Greek and Macedonian colonists flocked to Greek cities of the former Persia
2. Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
3. Bactria withdrew from Seleucids and established independent Greek kingdom
3. The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society
1. Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin
1. Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies
1. Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items
2. Led to broader sense of Greek community
2. Panhellenic festivals (like Olympic Games) became popular
2. Family and society
1. Greek society in Homer's works
1. Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world
2. Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly
2. Patriarchal society was the norm
1. Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses
2. Priestess was the only public position for women
3. Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis
3. Sappho: Talented female poet wrote poems of attraction to women
1. Instructed young women in music and literature at home
2. Critics charged her with homosexual activity (not acceptable for women)
4. Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners
1. Worked as cultivators, domestic servants
2. Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers
4. The cultural life of classical Greece
1. Rational thought and philosophy
1. The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason
2. Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living"
1. Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality
2. Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
3. Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): A zealous disciple of Socrates
1. The theory of Forms or Ideas--world of ideal qualities
2. This world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms
3. His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
4. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms
1. Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments
2. Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information
5. Legacy of Greek philosophy
1. Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until seventeenth century
2. Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians
2. Popular religion and Greek drama
1. Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities
2. Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular
3. Drama was performed at annual theatrical festivals
1. Great tragedians explored the possibilities and limitations of human action
2. Comic drama took delight in lampooning the public figures
3. Hellenistic philosophy and religion
1. The Hellenistic philosophers: search for personal tranquility
1. Epicureans: identified pleasure as the greatest good
2. Skeptics: doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
3. Stoics: taught individuals duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives
2. Religions of salvation spread through trade routes
1. Mystery religions promised eternal bliss for believers; like Cult of Osiris
2. Speculation about a single, universal god emerged

Chapter 12: Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads

1. Long-distance trade and the silk roads network
1. Zhang Qian's mission to the west
1. Held by Xiongnu for years
2. Told Han Wudi of possibility of establishing trade relations to Bactria
3. Han Wudi subdued Xiongnu, opening up region to safe trade routes
2. Trade networks of the Hellenistic era
1. Important developments of the classical era that reduced risks
1. Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges
2. Large empires expanded until borders were closer
2. Trade networks of the Hellenistic world
1. Exchanges between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west
2. Ptolemies learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean
3. Maritime trade included East Africa--Rhapta
3. The silk roads
1. Trade routes
1. Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire
2. Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network
2. Trade goods
1. Silk and spices traveled west
2. Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China
3. Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles
3. The organization of long-distance trade
1. Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages
2. On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires
2. Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads
1. The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
1. Buddhism in central Asia and China
1. First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads
2. Further spread to steppe lands
3. Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, first century B.C.E.
4. Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E.
2. Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia
2. The spread of Christianity
1. Christianity in the Mediterranean basin
1. Missionaries, like Gregory the Wonderworker, attracted converts
2. Christian communities flourished in Mediterranean basin by late third century C.E.
2. Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes
1. Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, second century C.E.
2. Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the seventh century C.E.
3. Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire
4. Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, fifth century C.E.
5. Nestorian communities in central Asia, India, and China by seventh century C.E.
3. The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads
1. Mani and Manichaeism
1. Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism
2. Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil
3. Offered means to achieve personal salvation
4. Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards
5. Differentiation between the "elect" and the "hearers"
2. Spread of Manichaeism; appealed to merchants
1. Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region
2. Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, third century C.E.
3. Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia
4. The spread of epidemic disease
1. Epidemic diseases
1. Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
2. Roman Empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E.
3. China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E.
2. Effects of epidemic diseases
1. Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted
2. Small regional economies emerged
3. Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires
3. China after the Han dynasty
1. Internal decay of the Han state
1. Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions
2. Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet
1. By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into three kingdoms
2. Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years
2. Cultural change in post-Han China
1. Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples
2. Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability
3. Popularity of Buddhism; nomadic rulers embraced it
4. The fall of the Roman empire
1. Internal decay in the Roman empire
1. The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E.
2. The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)
1. Divided the empire into two administrative districts
2. A co-emperor ruled each district with the aid of a powerful lieutenant
3. The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople
2. Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire
1. Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire
1. Visigoths--settled agriculturalists; adopted Roman law and Christianity
2. Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer
2. The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E.
3. The collapse of the western Roman empire
1. Under the Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples streamed into the Roman empire
2. Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa
3. Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E.
4. Imperial authority survived in the eastern half of the empire
3. Cultural change in the late Roman empire
1. Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire
1. With Constantine's Edict of Milan, Christianity became a legitimate religion, 313 C.E.
2. Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion, 380 C.E.
3. St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought
2. The Church became increasingly institutionalized
1. Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians
2. Established standardized hierarchy of church officials
3. The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader
4. As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation

Chapter 13: The Expansive Realm of Islam

1. A prophet and his world
1. Muhammad and his message
1. Arabian peninsula was mostly desert
1. Nomadic Bedouin people organized in family and clan groups
2. Important in long-distance trade networks between China/India and Persia/Byzantium
2. Muhammad's early life
1. Muhammad ibn Abdullah born to a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.
2. Difficult early life, married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595
3. Became a merchant at age thirty and was exposed to various faiths
3. Muhammad's spiritual transformation at age forty
1. There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")
2. Allah would soon bring judgment on the world
3. The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad
4. The Quran ("recitation")--holy book of Islam
1. Followers compiled Muhammad's revelations
2. Work of poetry and definitive authority on Islam
3. Other works include hadith (sayings and deeds of Muhammad)
2. Muhammad's migration to Medina
1. Conflict at Mecca
1. His teachings offended other believers, especially the ruling elite of Mecca
2. Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants
3. Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the black rock at Ka'ba
2. The hijra
1. Under persecution, Muhammad and followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.
2. The move, known as hijra, was the starting point of the Islamic calendar
3. The umma: cohesive community of Muslims in Medina
4. The "seal of the prophets"
1. Muhammad called himself the "seal of the prophets"--the final prophet of Allah
2. Held Hebrew scripture and New Testament in high esteem
3. Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind
3. The establishment of Islam in Arabia
1. Muhammad's return to Mecca
1. He and his followers conquered Mecca, 630
2. Imposed a government dedicated to Allah
3. Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques
2. The Ka'ba was not destroyed; it became site of pilgrimage in 632
3. The Five Pillars of Islam, or obligations taught by Muhammad
4. Islamic law: the sharia, inspired by Quran
1. Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life
2. Through the sharia, Islam became more than a religion, it became a way of life
2. The expansion of Islam
1. The early caliphs and the Umayyad dynasty
1. The caliph
1. Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")
2. Became head of the state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander
2. Dramatic expansion of Islam
3. The Shia
1. The Shia sect originally supported Ali and descendents as caliph
2. Versus the Sunnis ("traditionalists"), the Shias accepted legitimacy of early caliphs
3. Different beliefs: holy days for leaders, Ali infallible
4. Ongoing conflict between the two sects
4. The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
1. The dynasty temporarily solved problem of succession
2. Established capital city at Damascus in Syria
3. Ruled the dar al-Islam for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy
5. Policy toward conquered peoples
1. Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam
2. Even the non-Arab converts were discriminated against
6. Umayyad decline, due to discontent of conquered and resistance of Shia
2. The Abbasid dynasty
1. Abu al-Abbas, descendant of Muhammad's uncle
1. Allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims
2. Won battle against Umayyad in 750 after annihilating the clan
2. The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
1. Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy
2. No longer conquering, but the empire still grew
3. Abbasid administration
1. Relied heavily on Persian techniques of statecraft
2. Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad
3. Appointed governors to rule provinces
4. Ulama ("people with religious knowledge") and qadis (judges) ruled locally
4. Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.), high point of Abassid dynasty
5. Abbasid decline
1. Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war
2. Governors built their own power bases
3. Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty
4. A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945
5. Later, the Saljuq Turks controlled the imperial family
3. Economy and society of the early Islamic world
1. New crops, agricultural experimentation, and urban growth
1. Spread of new foods and industrial crops
2. Effects of new crops
1. Increased varieties and quantities of food
2. Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry
3. Agricultural experimentation
4. Urban growth
1. Increasing agricultural production contributed to the rapid growth of cities
2. A new industry: paper manufacture
2. The formation of a hemispheric trading zone
1. Overland trade
1. Trade revived silk roads
2. Umayyad and Abbasid rulers maintained roads for military and administration
2. Camels and caravans
1. Overland trade traveled mostly by camel caravan
2. Caravanserais in Islamic cities
3. Maritime trade
1. Arab and Persian mariners borrowed the compass from the Chinese
2. Borrowed the lateen sail from southeast Asian and Indian mariners
3. Borrowed astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners
4. Banks
1. Operated on large scale and provided extensive services
2. Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks
5. The organization of trade
1. Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments
2. Traders even went to West Africa, Russia, Scandinavia
6. Al-Andalus with its capital city Cordoba
1. This area was Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers
2. Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty
3. Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence
3. The changing status of women
1. The Quran and women
1. The Quran enhanced security of women
2. The Quran and sharia also reinforced male domination
2. Veiling of women
1. Adopted veiling of women from Mesopotamia and Persia
2. Women's rights provided by the Quran were reduced through later interpretations
4. Islamic values and cultural exchanges
1. The formation of an Islamic cultural tradition
1. The Quran and sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines
2. Promotion of Islamic values
1. Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents
2. Education also promoted Islamic values
3. Sufis, or Islamic mystics
1. Most effective missionaries
2. Encouraged devotion to Allah by passionate singing or dancing
3. Al-Ghazali believed that human reason was too frail and confusing
4. Sufis led ascetic and holy lives, won respect of the people
5. Encouraged followers to revere Allah in their own ways
6. Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs
4. The hajj
1. The Ka'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
2. Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
2. Islam and the cultural traditions of Persia, India, and Greece
1. Persian influence on Islam
1. Most notable in literary works
2. Administrative techniques borrowed from Sasanids
3. Ideas of kingship: wise, benevolent, absolute
2. Indian influences
1. Adopted "Hindi numerals," which Europeans later called "Arabic numerals"
2. Algebra and trigonometry
3. Greek influences
1. Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle
2. Ibn Rushd (Averroës) turned to Aristotle in twelfth century

Chapter 14: The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia

1. The restoration of centralized imperial rule in China
1. The Sui dynasty (589-618 C.E.)
1. After the Han dynasty, turmoil lasted for more than 350 years
2. Reunification by Yang Jian in 589
3. The rule of the Sui
1. Construction of palaces and granaries; repairing the Great Wall
2. Military expeditions in central Asia and Korea
3. High taxes and compulsory labor services
4. The Grand Canal integrated economies of north and south
5. The fall of the Sui
1. High taxes and forced labor generated hostility among the people
2. Military reverses in Korea
3. Rebellions broke out in north China beginning in 610
4. Sui Yangdi was assassinated in 618, the end of the dynasty
2. The Tang dynasty (618-907 C.E.)
1. Tang Taizong (627-649)
1. A rebel leader seized Chang'an and proclaimed a new dynasty, the Tang
2. Tang Taizong, the second Tang emperor; ruthless but extremely competent
3. era of unusual stability and prosperity
2. Extensive networks of transportation and communications
3. Equal-field system--land allotted according to needs
4. Bureaucracy of merit through civil service exams
5. Foreign relations
1. Political theory: China was the Middle Kingdom, or the center of civilization
2. Tributary system became diplomatic policy
6. Tang decline
1. Casual and careless leadership led to dynastic crisis
2. Rebellion of An Lushan in 755 weakened the dynasty
3. The Uighurs became de facto rulers
4. The equal-field system deteriorated
5. A large-scale peasant rebellion led by Huang Chao lasted from 875 to 884
6. Regional military commanders gained power and were beyond control of the emperor
7. The last Tang emperor abdicated his throne in 907
3. The Song dynasty (960-1279 C.E.)
1. Song Taizu (reigned 960-976 C.E.) was the founder
2. Song weaknesses
1. Financial problems: enormous bureaucracy and high salary devoured surplus
2. Military problems: civil bureaucrats in charge of military forces
3. External pressures: semi nomadic Khitan and nomadic Jurchen
4. The Song moved to the south, ruled south China until 1279
2. The economic development of Tang and Song China
1. Agricultural development
1. Fast-ripening rice increased food supplies
2. New agricultural techniques increased production
3. Population growth: 45 to 115 million between 600 and 1200 C.E.
4. Urbanization
5. Commercialized agriculture; some regions depended on other regions for food
6. Patriarchal social structure
1. Ancestor worship became more elaborate
2. Foot binding gained popularity
2. Technological and industrial development
1. Porcelain (chinaware) diffused rapidly
2. Metallurgy increased ten times from ninth to twelfth centuries
3. Gunpowder was used in primitive weapons and diffused through Eurasia
4. Printing developed from wood block to movable type
5. Naval technology: "south-pointing needle"--the magnetic compass
3. The emergence of a market economy
1. Financial instruments: "flying cash" (letters of credit) and paper money
2. A cosmopolitan society: communities of foreign merchants in large cities
3. Economic surge in China promoted economic growth in the eastern hemisphere
3. Cultural change in Tang and Song China
1. Establishment of Buddhism
1. Foreign religions: Nestorians, Manichaeans, Zoroastrians, Muslim communities
2. Dunhuang, city on silk road, transmits Mahayana Buddhism to China
3. Buddhism in China
1. Attraction: moral standards, intellectual sophistication, and salvation
2. Monasteries became large landowners, helped the poor and needy
3. Also posed a challenge to Chinese cultural tradition
4. Buddhism and Daoism
1. Chinese monks explained Buddhist concepts in Daoist vocabulary
2. Dharma as dao, and nirvana as wuwei
3. Teaching: one son in monastery would benefit whole family for ten generations
5. Chan Buddhism
1. A syncretic faith: Buddhism with Chinese characteristics
2. Chan (or Zen in Japanese) was a popular Buddhist sect
6. Hostility to Buddhism from the Daoists and Confucians
7. Persecution; it survived because of popularity
2. Neo-Confucianism
1. Buddhist influence on Confucianism
1. Early Confucianism focused on practical issues of politics and morality
2. Confucians began to draw inspiration from Buddhism in areas of logic and metaphysics
2. Zhu Xi (1130-1200 C.E.), the most prominent neo-Confucian scholar
4. Chinese influence in east Asia
1. Korea and Vietnam
1. The Silla dynasty of Korea (669-935 C.E.)
1. Tang armies conquered much of Korea; the Silla dynasty organized resistance
2. Korea entered into a tributary relationship with China
2. China's influence in Korea
1. Tributary embassies included Korean royal officials and scholars
2. The Silla kings built a new capital at Kumsong modeled on the Tang capital
3. Korean elite turned to neo-Confucianism; peasants turned to Chan Buddhism
3. Difference between Korea and China: aristocracy and royal houses dominated Korea
4. China and Vietnam
1. Viet people adopted Chinese agriculture, schools, and thought
2. Tributary relationship with China
3. When Tang fell, Vietnam gained independence
5. Difference between Vietnam and China
1. Many Vietnamese retained their religious traditions
2. Women played more prominent roles in Vietnam than in China
6. Chinese influence in Vietnam: bureaucracy and Buddhism
2. Early Japan
1. Nara Japan (710-794 C.E.)
1. The earliest inhabitants of Japan were nomadic peoples from northeast Asia
2. Ruled by several dozen states by the middle of the first millennium C.E.
3. Inspired by the Tang example, one clan claimed imperial authority over others
4. Built a new capital (Nara) in 710 C.E., modeled on Chang'an
5. Adopted Confucianism and Buddhism, but maintained their Shinto rites
2. Heian Japan (794-1185 C.E.)
1. Moved to new capital, Heian (modern Kyoto), in 794
2. Japanese emperors as ceremonial figureheads and symbols of authority
3. Effective power in the hands of the Fujiwara family
4. Emperor did not rule, which explains the longevity of the imperial house
5. Chinese learning dominated Japanese education and political thought
3. The Tale of Genji was written by a woman, Murasaki Shikibu
4. Decline of Heian Japan
1. The equal-field system began to fail
2. Aristocratic clans accumulated most land
3. Taira and Minamoto, the two most powerful clans, engaged in wars
4. Clan leader of Minamoto claimed titleshogun, military governor; ruled in Kamakura
3. Medieval Japan was a period of decentralization
1. Kamakura (1185-1333 C.E.) and Muromachi (1336-1573 C.E.) periods
2. The samurai
1. Professional warriors of provincial lords
2. Valued loyalty, military talent, and discipline
3. Observed samurai code called bushido
4. To preserve their honor, engaged in ritual suicide called seppuku

Chapter 15: India and the Indian Ocean Basin

1. Islamic and Hindu kingdoms
1. The quest for centralized imperial rule
1. North India
1. Tension among regional kingdoms
2. Nomadic Turks became absorbed into Indian society
2. Harsha (reigned 606-648 C.E.) temporarily restored unified rule in north India
2. Introduction of Islam to northern India
1. The Sind were conquered by Arab Muslims and passed to Abbasids
2. Muslim merchants formed small communities in all major cities of coastal India
3. Turkish migrants and Islam: Turks convert to Islam in tenth century
1. Some moved to Afghanistan and established an Islamic state
2. Mahmud of Ghazni, Turk leader in Afghanistan, made expeditions to northern India
4. The sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526 C.E.)
1. Mahmud's successors conquered north India, 1206
2. Established an Islamic state known as the sultanate of Delhi
3. Sultans' authority did not extend far beyond the capital at Delhi
4. Islam began to have a place in India
3. The Hindu kingdoms of southern India
1. The south: politically divided but relatively peaceful
2. The Chola kingdom (850-1267 C.E.) was a larger kingdom; ruled Coromandel coast
1. At its high point, conquered Ceylon and parts of southeast Asia
2. Navy dominated waters from South China Sea to Arabian Sea
3. Not a tightly centralized state; local autonomy was strong
4. Began to decline by the twelfth century
4. The kingdom of Vijayanagar (1336-1565 C.E.)
1. Established by two Indian brothers
2. They renounced Islam in 1336 and returned to their Hindu faith
2. Production and trade in the Indian Ocean basin
1. Agriculture in the monsoon world
1. The monsoons (rains in spring and summer)
2. Irrigation systems were needed for dry months
1. No big river in south India; waterworks included dams, reservoirs, canals, wells
2. Stored rainwater in large reservoirs connected to canals
3. One reservoir constructed during the eleventh century covered 250 square miles
3. Population growth: 53 million in 600 C.E. to 105 million in 1500 C.E.
4. Urbanization took place in Delhi and other large port cities
2. Trade and economic development of southern India
1. Internal trade
1. Self-sufficient in staple food
2. Metals, spices, special crops found only in certain regions
3. Through trade, south India and Ceylon experienced rapid economic growth
2. Temples and society in south India
1. Hindu temples served as economic and social centers
2. Possessed large tracts of land, hundreds of employees
3. Temple administrators were to maintain order, deliver taxes
4. Served as banks; engaged in business ventures
3. Cross-cultural trade in Indian Ocean basin
1. Dhows and junks--large ships involved in maritime trade in Indian Ocean
2. Emporia, Indian port cities, were clearinghouses of trade and cosmopolitan centers
3. Trade goods
1. Silk and porcelain from China
2. Spices from southeast Asia
3. Pepper, gems, pearls, and cotton from India
4. Incense and horses from Arabia and southwest Asia
5. Gold, ivory, and slaves from east Africa
4. Specialized production
1. Production of high-quality cotton textiles thrived
2. Other specialized industries: sugar, leather, stone, carpets, iron and steel
5. The kingdom of Axum was a Christian empire centered in Ethiopia
1. Resisted pressures of Islam; stayed prosperous through trade
2. Controlled Adulis, most prominent port on Red Sea
4. Caste and society: caste provided guidance in absence of centralized political authority
1. Caste helped to integrate immigrants (Turks, Muslim merchants) into Indian society
2. Caste and social change: guilds and sub castes (jatis)
3. Expansion of caste system, especially to southern India
3. The meeting of Hindu and Islamic traditions
1. The development of Hinduism
1. Hinduism predominated in southern India, Islam in the north
2. Vishnu and Shiva
1. Decline of Buddhism benefited Hinduism
2. The growth of Vishnu and Shiva cults (and other gods associated with them)
3. Devotional cults: to achieve mystic union with gods as a way of salvation
4. Shankara: philosopher (ninth century) who preferred disciplined logical reasoning
5. Ramanuja: philosopher (eleventh and twelfth centuries) believed that understanding of ultimate reality was less important than devotion
2. Islam and its appeal
1. Conversion to Islam occurred in a slow and gradual way
1. Some converted for improving their lower social statuses
2. Often an entire caste or sub caste adopted Islam en masse
3. By 1500, about 25 million Indian Muslims (1/4 of population)
2. Sufis
1. The most effective missionaries, they had a devotional approach to Islam
2. Permitted followers to observe old rituals and venerate old spirits
3. Emphasized piety and devotion
3. The bhakti movement
1. Sought to erase distinction between Hinduism and Islam
2. Guru Kabir (1440-1518), important bhakti teacher, taught that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were one deity
4. The influence of Indian society in southeast Asia
1. The states of southeast Asia
1. Indian influence in southeast Asia
1. Indian merchants brought their faiths to southeast Asia
2. Ruling elite of southeast Asia adapted some Indian political traditions
3. The states sponsored Hinduism and Buddhism
4. Showed no interest in Indian caste system
2. Funan (first to sixth century C.E.) in the lower reaches of Mekong River (Cambodia/Vietnam)
1. Drew enormous wealth by controlling trade
2. Adopted Sanskrit as official language
3. Decline of Funan in sixth century
3. Srivijaya (670-1025 C.E.) was established on Sumatra after the fall of Funan
1. Maintained sea trade between China and India by navy
2. Chola kingdom of south India eclipsed Srivijaya in the eleventh century
4. Angkor (889-1431 C.E.)
1. Kingdom built by Khmers at Angkor Thom, later Angkor Wat
2. The city was a microcosmic reflection of Hindu world order
3. Turned to Buddhism during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
4. Thais invaded the capital in 1431, and Khmers abandoned it
5. Other states: Singosari (1222-1292 C.E.) and Majapahit (1293-1520 C.E.)
2. The arrival of Islam in southeast Asia
1. Conversion to Islam was slow and quiet
1. Ruling elite converted in cities while rural residents retained their traditions
2. Islam was not an exclusive faith in southeast Asia
3. Sufis appealed to a large public in these countries
2. Melaka was powerful Islamic state during fifteenth century

Chapter 16: The Two Worlds of Christendom

1. The quest for political order
1. The Early Byzantine Empire
1. The City of Constantine
2. Caesaropapism
3. Justinian (527-565 C.E.) and his legacy; Theodora (empress)
1. Rebuilt Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia
4. Justine's Code
1. Codified Roman law Corpus iuris civilis(The Body of the Civil Law)
5. Byzantine Conquests
2. Muslim Conquests and Byzantine Revival
1. Muslim Conquests
2. The Theme system
3. The Rise of the Franks
1. Germanic Kingdoms
2. The Franks
3. Charlemagne (reigned 768-814 C.E.)
1. Grandson of Charles Martel, founder of Carolingian empire
2. Control extended to northeast Spain, Bavaria, north Italy
4. Charlemagne's Administration
1. Capital city at Aachen (in modern Germany)
2. Relied on aristocratic deputies, known as counts
3. Used missi dominici to oversee local authorities
5. Charlemagne as Emperor
1. Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor, 800
2. The coronation strained relations with Byzantine emperors
6. The Age of the Vikings
1. Louis the Pious
2. Invasions
3. Vikings
4. Devolution of Political Authority
2. Economy and Society in Early Medieval Europe
1. The Two Economies of Early Medieval Europe
1. Byzantine Peasantry
2. Manufacturing
3. Silk
4. Agriculture production suffered from repeated invasions
5. Heavy plows
1. Heavy plows appeared in the sixth century; could turn heavy northern soils
2. Became common from the eighth century; production increased
3. Cultivation of new lands; watermills; and rotating crops
6. Rural society--agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities
7. Mediterranean trade--Italian and Spanish merchants trade with Muslims
8. Norse merchant mariners in North and Baltic Seas
1. Followed routes of Vikings
2. Traded actively with Byzantine and Abbasid empires
3. Imported Abbasid silver used in European coinage
9. Population: 36 million in 200; down to 26 million in 600; back up to 36 million in 1000
2. Social Development in the Two Worlds of Christendom
1. Byzantium: An Urban Society
2. City Life
3. Attractions of Constantinople
4. Western Europe: A Rural Society
5. The Question of Fudalism
6. Peasants
7. Population
3. The Evolution of Christian Societies in Byzantium and Western Europe
1. Popes and Patriarchs
1. The Papacy
2. Pope Gregory I
1. Organized defense of Rome against Lombard's' menace
2. Reasserted papal primacy over other bishops
3. Strongly emphasized the sacrament of penance--confession and atonement
3. The Patriarchs
4. Iconoclasm
2. Monks and Missionaries
1. Asceticism
1. Devout Christians practiced asceticism in deserts of Egypt, second and third century
2. Monastic lifestyle became popular when Christianity became legal, fourth century
2. St. Basil and St. Benedict
1. St. Basil of Caesarea (329-379 C.E.) organized monastic movement
2. St. Benedict (480-547 C.E.) provided a set of regulations
3. Virtues of Benedictine monks: poverty, chastity, and obedience
3. St. Scholastica
1. St. Benedict's sister, a nun
2. Adapted the Rule, and provided guidance for religious life of women
4. Monasticism and Society
1. Became dominant feature in social and cultural life of western Europe
2. Accumulated large landholdings
3. Organized much of the rural labor force for agricultural production
4. Provided variety of social services: inns, shelters, orphanages, hospitals, schools
5. Libraries and scriptoria became centers of learning.
5. Missionaries
3. Two Churches
1. Religious Rivalry
1. Constantinople and Rome: strains mirrored political tensions
2. Ritual and doctrinal differences, such as iconoclasm
2. Schism
1. Schism in 1054--Eastern Orthodox versus Roman Catholic

Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

1. Turkish migrations and imperial expansion
1. Nomadic economy and society
1. Turkish peoples were nomadic herders; organized into clans with related languages
2. Central Asia's steppes: good for grazing, little rain, few rivers
3. Nomads and their animals; few settlements
1. Nomads drove their herds in migratory cycles
2. Lived mostly on animal products
3. Also produced limited amounts of millet, pottery, leather goods, iron
4. Nomads and settled peoples sought trade, were prominent on caravan routes
5. Fluidity of classes in nomadic society
1. Two social classes: nobles and commoners
2. Autonomous clans and tribes
6. Religions: shamans, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity; by tenth century, Islam
7. Military organization
1. Khan ("ruler") organized vast confederation of individual tribes for expansion
2. Outstanding cavalry forces, formidable military power
2. Turkish empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India
1. Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid empire
1. Lived on borders of the Abbasid realm, mid-eighth to mid-tenth centuries
2. Moved further in and served in Abbasid armies thereafter
3. Overshadowed the Abbasid caliphs by the mid-eleventh century
4. Extended Turkish rule to Syria, Palestine, and other parts of the realm
2. Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine empire
1. Migrated in large numbers to Anatolia, early eleventh century
2. Defeated Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071
3. Transformed Anatolia into an Islamic society
3. Ghaznavid Turks dominated northern India through sultanate of Delhi
2. The Mongol empires
1. Chinggis Khan and the making of the Mongol empire
1. Chinggis Khan ("universal ruler") unified Mongol tribes through alliance and conquests
2. Mongol political organization
1. Organized new military units and broke up tribal affiliations
2. Chose high officials based on talent and loyalty
3. Established capital at Karakorum
3. Mongol strategy: horsemanship, archers, mobility, psychological warfare
4. Mongol conquest of northern China
1. Chinggis Khan, Mongols raided the Jurchen in north China beginning in 1211
2. Controlled north China by 1220
3. South China was still ruled by the Song dynasty
5. Mongol conquest of Persia
1. Chinggis Khan tried to open trade and diplomatic relations with Saljuq leader Khwarazm shah, the ruler of Persia, 1218
2. Upon being rejected, Chinggis Khan led force to pursue the Khwarazm
3. Mongol forces destroyed Persian cities and qanat
4. Chinggis died in 1227, laid foundation for a mighty empire
2. The Mongol empires after Chinggis Khan
1. Division of the Mongol empires: heirs divide into four regional empires
2. Khubilai Khan
1. Chinggis Khan's grandson, consolidated Mongol rule in China
2. Promoted Buddhism, supported Daoists, Muslims, and Christians
3. Conquest of southern China
1. Khubilai extended Mongol rule to all of China
2. Song capital at Hangzhou fell in 1276, Yuan Dynasty founded in 1279
3. Unsuccessful conquests of Vietnam, Burma, Java, and Japan
4. The Golden Horde
1. Group of Mongols overran Russia between 1237 and 1241
2. Further overran Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany, 1241-1242
3. Maintained hegemony in Russia until the mid-fifteenth century
5. The ilkhanate of Persia: Khubilai's brother, Hülegü, captured Baghdad in 1258
6. Mongol rule in Persia
1. Persians served as ministers, governors, and local officials
2. Mongols only cared about taxes and order
3. Ilkhan Ghazan converted to Islam, 1295; massacres of Christians and Jews followed
7. Mongol rule in China
1. Outlawed intermarriage between Mongols and Chinese
2. Forbade Chinese from learning the Mongol language
3. Brought foreign administrators into China and put them in charge
4. Dismissed Confucian scholars; dismantled civil service examination
5. Tolerated all cultural and religious traditions in China
8. Mongol ruling elite became enchanted with the Lamaist Buddhism of Tibet
3. The Mongols and Eurasian integration
1. The Mongols and trade
1. Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure safety of merchants
2. Elaborate courier network with relay stations
3. Maintained good order for traveling merchants, ambassadors, and missionaries
2. Diplomatic missions
1. The four Mongol empires maintained close diplomatic communications
2. Established diplomatic relations with Korea, Vietnam, India, Europe
3. Resettlement
1. Mongols needed skilled artisans and educated individuals from other places
2. Often resettled them in different locations to provide services
3. Uighur Turks served as clerks, secretaries, and administrators
4. Arab and Persian Muslims also served Mongols far from their homelands
5. Skilled artisans were often sent to Karakorum; became permanent residents
4. Decline of the Mongols in Persia and China
1. Collapse of the ilkhanate
1. In Persia, excessive spending and overexploitation led to reduced revenues
2. Failure of the ilkhan's paper money
3. Factional struggle plagued the Mongol leadership
4. The last ruler died without an heir; the ilkhanate collapsed
2. Decline of the Yuan dynasty
1. Paper money issued by the Mongol rulers lost value
2. Power struggles, assassinations, and civil war weakened Mongols after 1320s
3. Bubonic plague in southwest China in 1330s, spread through Asia and Europe
1. Depopulation and labor shortage undermined the Mongol regime
2. By 1368, the Chinese drove the Mongols back to the steppes
4. Surviving Mongol khanates
1. The khanate of Chaghatai continued in central Asia
2. The Golden Horde survived until the mid-sixteenth century
3. After the Mongols
1. Tamerlane the Whirlwind (1336-1404) built central Asian empire
1. The lame conqueror, Timur was self-made; rose to power in 1360s; established capital in Samarkand
2. Tamerlane's conquests
1. First conquered Persia and Afghanistan
2. Next attacked the Golden Horde
3. At the end of the fourteenth century, invaded northern India
4. Ruled the empire through tribal leaders who relied on existing bureaucrats to collect taxes
3. Tamerlane's heirs struggled and divided empire into four regions
2. The foundation of the Ottoman empire
1. Osman
1. Large numbers of nomadic Turks migrated to Persia and Anatolia
2. Osman, a charismatic leader, carved out a small state in northwest Anatolia
3. Claimed independence from the Saljuq sultan in 1299
2. Ottoman conquests in the Balkans in 1350s
1. Sultan Mehmed II sacked Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul
2. Absorbed the remainder of the Byzantine empire
3. During the sixteenth century, extended to southwest Asia, southeast Europe, and north Africa

Chapter 18: States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa

1. Effects of early African migrations
1. Agriculture and population growth
1. Bantu and other migrations from 2000 B.C.E.--1000 C.E.
1. Spread agriculture and herding throughout Africa
2. Displaced and/or absorbed hunting/gathering/fishing people
3. Iron metallurgy after 500 B.C.E. facilitated clearing more land
4. Yams, sorghum, and millet cultivated
5. Introduction of bananas after 500 C.E. caused migration and population surge
2. Population growth: from 3.5 million in 400 B.C.E. to 22 million by 1000 C.E.
2. African political organization
1. Kin-based society the norm (sometimes called "stateless society")
1. Early societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
2. Societies governed through family and kinship groups
3. Village council consisted of male family heads
4. Chief of a village was from the most prominent family head
5. A group of villages constituted a district
6. Villages chiefs negotiated inter-village affairs
2. Chiefdoms
1. Population growth strained resources and increased conflict
2. Some African communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.
3. Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority and conquered
4. Examples: Ife and Benin
3. Kingdom of Kongo
1. Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
2. Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
3. One of the principalities overcame its neighbors and built kingdom of Kongo
4. Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system
5. Provided effective organization until the mid-seventeenth century
2. Islamic kingdoms and empires
1. Trans-Saharan trade and Islamic states in west Africa
1. After 300 C.E. camels replaced horses and donkeys as transport animals
1. Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara
2. Islamic merchants crossed desert and established relations
2. The kingdom of Ghana became the most important commercial site in west Africa
1. Provided gold (most important), ivory, and slaves for traders from north Africa
2. Exchanged for horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt
3. Koumbi-Saleh, capital city of Ghana, a thriving commercial center
4. Ghana kings converted to Islam by the tenth century, didn't force on others
5. Nomadic raids from the Sahara weakened the kingdom in the early thirteenth century
3. Sundiata, or lion prince, built Mali empire (reigned 1230-1255 C.E.)
4. Mali empire and trade
1. Controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa
2. Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa
3. Besides the capital Niani, many other prosperous cities on caravan routes
5. Mansa Musa, Sundiata's grandnephew (reigned 1312-1337 C.E.)
1. Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 with huge caravan
2. Upon return to Mali, built mosques
3. Sent students to study with distinguished Islamic scholars in northern Africa
4. Established Islamic schools in Mali
6. Decline of Mali due to factions and military pressure from neighbors and nomads
7. The Songhay empire replaced Mali by the late fifteenth century
2. The Indian Ocean trade and Islamic states in east Africa
1. Swahili is an Arabic term meaning "coasters"
1. Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
2. Spoke Swahili, a Bantu language, supplemented with some Arabic words
3. Trade with Muslim merchants became important by the tenth century
2. The Swahili city-states
1. Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
2. Ports developed into city-states governed by kings, eleventh and twelfth centuries
3. Kilwa: good example of busy city-state on east coast; exported gold
4. Zimbabwe was powerful kingdom of east Africa
1. By the ninth century, chiefs began to build stone residences (Zimbabwe)
2. Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe in the twelfth century
3. Eighteen thousand people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late fifteenth century
4. Kings organized flow of gold, ivory, and slaves
5. Islam in east Africa
1. Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
2. Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
3. Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers
3. African society and cultural development
1. Social classes
1. Diversity of African societies: villages, kingdoms, empires, city-states
2. Kinship groups: extended families and clans as social and economic organizations
1. Communities claimed rights to land; no private property
2. Village council allocated land to clan members
3. Sex and gender relations
1. Men undertook heavy labor
2. Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores
3. Men monopolized public authority, but women enjoyed high honor as the source of life
4. Aristocratic women could influence public affairs
5. Women merchants commonly traded at markets
6. Sometimes women organized all-female military units
7. Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa
4. Age grades
1. Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades
2. Age group formed tight circle of friends, later allies
5. Slavery
1. Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
2. Worked as agricultural labor or sold in slave markets
3. Slave trade increased after the eleventh century
4. Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
5. Slave raids of large states against small states or villages
6. Zanj slave revolt in Mesopotamia in tenth century
2. African religion
1. Creator god as source of world order
2. Lesser gods and spirits
1. Often associated with natural features
2. Intervened in the workings of the world
3. Believed in ancestors' souls; had many rituals
3. Diviners mediated between humanity and supernatural beings
1. Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune
2. Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
3. African religion was not theological but practical
3. The arrival of Christianity and Islam
1. Early Christianity in north Africa
1. Christianity reached north Africa during the first century C.E.
2. Christian kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia (fourth century C.E.)
2. Ethiopian Christianity
1. Missionaries translated Bible and popularized Christianity there
2. Carved churches out of solid rock
3. Solomonic dynasty claimed descent from Israelite kings (thirteenth century)
4. Kebra Negast fictionalized account of lineage; was popular with Rastafarians
3. African Islam
1. Appealed strongly to ruling elite and merchants of sub-Saharan Africa
2. Converts took their religion seriously; they built mosques and schools, invited experts
3. Accommodated African gender relations; women retained more freedoms
4. Supplemented rather than replaced traditional religions

Chapter 19: The Increasing Influence of Europe

1. The establishment of regional states
1. The Holy Roman Empire
1. Otto I
1. Otto of Saxony rose in northern Germany by the mid-tenth century
2. Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962: birth of Holy Roman Empire
2. Investiture contest
1. Formerly, important church officials were appointed by imperial authorities
2. Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice
3. Emperor Henry IV was excommunicated because of his disobedience
3. Frederick Barbarossa
1. Sought to absorb Lombardy in north Italy
2. Papal coalition forced Barbarossa to relinquish his rights in Lombardy
2. Regional monarchies in France and England
1. Capetian France: Hugh Capet founded dynasty from 987, lasted three centuries
2. The Normans were descendents of Vikings in Normandy, France
1. Duke William of Normandy invaded England in 1066
2. Introduced Norman style of political administration to England
3. Regional states in Italy and Iberia
1. Popes ruled a good-sized territory in central Italy
2. Prosperous northern Italian city-states: Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Milan, Venice
3. Normans conquered southern Italy, brought Roman Catholic Christianity
4. Christian and Muslim states in Iberia
1. Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula, eighth to the eleventh centuries
2. Christian kingdoms took the peninsula (except Granada) by late thirteenth century
2. Economic growth and social development
1. Growth of the agricultural economy
1. Expansion of arable land
1. Population pressure by the late tenth century
2. Serfs and monks began to clear forests and swamps
3. Lords encouraged such efforts for high taxes
2. Improved agricultural techniques
1. Crop rotation methods
2. Cultivation of beans increased and enriched the land
3. More domestic animals also enriched the land
4. Books and treatises on household economy and agricultural methods
3. New tools and technology
1. Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows
2. Use of horseshoe and horse collar increased land under cultivation
4. New food supplies
1. Before 1000, European diet was mostly grains
2. After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, legumes
3. Spain, Italy, Mediterranean got new foods through Islamic world
5. Population growth: from 29 million to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300 C.E.
2. The revival of towns and trade
1. Urbanization: peasants and serfs flocked to cities and towns
2. Textile production, especially in north Italy and Flanders
3. Mediterranean trade: Italian merchants dominated and established colonies
4. The Hanseatic League--an association of trading cities
1. Hansa dominated trade of northern Europe
2. Major European rivers linked Hansa to the Mediterranean
5. Improved business techniques
1. Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants
2. Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial investment
3. Social changes
1. The three estates
1. "Those who pray"--clergy of Roman Catholic church, the spiritual estate
2. "Those who fight"--feudal nobles, the military estate
3. "Those who work"--mostly peasants and serfs
2. Chivalry
1. Widely recognized code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles
2. Church officials directed chivalry toward Christian faith and piety
3. Troubadours
1. Aristocratic women promoted chivalric values by patronizing troubadours
2. Troubadours drew inspiration from the love poetry of Muslim Spain
4. Eleanor of Aquitaine was most celebrated woman of her day
1. Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement, and romantic love
2. Code of chivalry and romantic poetry softened manners of rough warriors
5. Independent cities: urban populations increasingly resisted demands of feudal nobles
6. Guilds
1. Regulated production and sale of goods
2. Established standards of quality for manufactured goods
3. Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers
4. Social significance: friendship, mutual support, built halls
7. Urban women: most guilds admitted women, and women also had own guilds
3. European Christianity during the high middle ages
1. Schools, universities, and scholastic theology
1. Cathedral schools
1. Bishops and archbishops in France and northern Italy organized schools
2. Cathedral schools had formal curricula, concentrated on liberal arts
3. Some offered advance instruction in law, medicine, and theology
2. Universities
1. Student guilds and faculty guilds
2. Large cathedral schools developed into universities
3. The influence of Aristotle
1. Obtained Aristotle's works from Byzantine and Muslim philosophers
2. Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas harmonized reason with Christianity
2. Popular religion
1. Sacraments; the most popular was the Eucharist
2. Devotion to saints for help; Virgin Mary most popular (cathedrals)
3. Saints' relics were esteemed; pilgrimages (Rome, Compostela, Jerusalem)
3. Reform movements and popular heresies
1. Dominicans and Franciscans were urban-based mendicant orders
1. Organized movements to champion spiritual over materialistic values
2. Zealously combated heterodox movements
2. Popular heresy: the movements of Waldensians and Cathars (Albigensians)
4. The Medieval Expansion of Europe
1. Atlantic and Baltic Colonization
1. Vinland
1. Scandinavian seafarers turned to North Atlantic Ocean, ninth and tenth centuries
2. Colonized Iceland and Greenland
3. Leif Ericsson traveled to modern Newfoundland, called Vinland
2. Christianity in Scandinavia: Denmark and Norway (tenth century), then spread
3. Crusading orders and Baltic expansion
1. Teutonic Knights most active in the Baltic region
2. Baltic region was absorbed into Christian Europe from the late thirteenth century
2. The reconquest (for Christianity) of Sicily and Spain
1. Reconquest of south Italy by Norman Roger Guiscard, 1090
2. Roger (also Norman) conquers Sicily
3. The reconquista of Spain began in 1060s
1. By 1150, took over half the peninsula
2. By the thirteenth century, took almost all the peninsula except Granada
3. The crusades
1. Pope Urban II called Christian knights to take up arms and seize the holy land, 1095
1. Peter the Hermit traveled in Europe and organized a ragtag army
2. Campaign was a disaster for the crusaders
2. The first crusade
1. French and Norman nobles organized military expedition, 1096
2. Jerusalem fell to the crusaders, 1099; Muslims recaptured, 1187
3. Later crusades
1. By the mid-thirteenth century, five major crusades had been launched
2. The fourth crusade (1202-1204) conquered Constantinople
3. The crusades failed to take over Palestine from the Muslims
4. Consequences of the crusades
1. Crusaders established some states in Palestine and Syria
2. Encouraged trade with Muslims; demands for luxury goods increased
3. Muslim ideas filter to Europe: Aristotle, science, astronomy, numerals, paper

Chapter 20: Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania

1. States and empires in Mesoamerica and North America
1. The Toltec and the Mexica
1. Toltecs emerge in the ninth and tenth centuries after the collapse of Teotihuacan
1. Established large state, powerful army mid-tenth to the mid-twelfth century
2. Tula was the Toltec capital city and center of trade
3. Maintained close relations with societies of the Gulf coast and the Maya
2. Toltec decline after twelfth century
1. Civil strife at Tula, beginning in 1125
2. Nomadic invaders after 1175
3. Arrival of the Mexica (or Aztecs) in central Mexico mid-thirteenth century
1. Warriors and raiders
2. Built capital city, Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), about 1345
3. Developed productive chinampas style of agriculture
4. Fifteenth century, Aztecs launched military campaigns against neighboring societies
1. Conquered and colonized Oaxaco in southwestern Mexico
2. Made alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan
3. Built an empire of twelve million people, most of Mesoamerica
5. Controlled subject peoples with oppressive tribute obligations
1. Empire had no bureaucracy or administration; local administrators enforced tributes
2. Allies did not have standing army
3. Tribute of 489 subject territories flowed into Tenochtitlan
2. Mexica society
1. Most information comes from Spanish sources, recorded after the conquest
2. Mexica warriors were the elite at the top of a rigid social hierarchy
1. Mostly from the Mexica aristocracy
2. Enjoyed great wealth, honor, and privileges
3. Mexica women had no public role, but were honored as mothers of warriors
1. Mexica women active in commerce and crafts
2. Primary purpose to bear children: women who died in childbirth celebrated
4. Priests also among the Mexica elite
1. Read omens, presided over rituals, monitored ritual calendar
2. Advisers to Mexica rulers, occasionally became supreme rulers
5. Most of the Mexica were either cultivators or slaves
1. Cultivators worked on chinampas (small plots of reclaimed land) or on aristocrats' land
2. Paid tribute and provided labor service for public works
3. Large number of slaves who worked as domestic servants
6. Artisans and merchants enjoyed prestige
1. Artisans valued for skill work, especially luxury items
2. Trade could be profitable, but also risky
3. Mexica religion
1. Mexica deities adopted from prior Mesoamerican cultures
1. Tezcatlipoca
2. Quetzalcóatl
2. Ritual bloodletting common to all Mesoamericans
1. Human sacrifice to Huitzilopochtli
2. Large temple at the center of Tenochtitlan, thousands of skulls
4. Peoples and societies of the north
1. Pueblo and Navajo: large settled societies in American southwest
1. Agriculture and irrigation
2. By about 700 C.E., began to build stone and adobe buildings
2. Iroquois peoples: an agricultural society in the eastern woodlands
1. Five Iroquois nations emerged from Owasco society, 1400 C.E.
2. Male/female roles
3. Mound-building peoples in eastern North America
1. Built enormous earthen mounds for ceremonies and burials
2. Largest mound at Cahokia, Illinois
3. Fifteen thousand to thirty-eight thousand people lived in Cahokia society during the twelfth century
4. No written records: burial sites reveal existence of social classes and trade
2. States and empires in Andean South America
1. The coming of the Incas
1. Kingdom of Chucuito dominated Andean South America after the twelfth century
1. Cultivation of potatoes; herding of llamas and alpacas
2. Traded with lower valleys; chewed coca leaves
2. Chimu, powerful kingdom in the lowlands of Peru before the mid-fifteenth century
1. Irrigation networks; cultivation of maize and sweet potatoes
2. Capital city at Chanchan had massive brick buildings
3. The Inca settled first around Lake Titicaca in the Andean highlands
1. Ruler Pachacuti launched campaigns against neighbors, 1438
2. Built a huge empire stretching four thousand kilometers from north to south
4. Inca ruled as a military and administrative elite
1. Use of quipu for record keeping
2. Capital at Cuzco, which had as many as three hundred thousand people in the late fifteenth century
3. Extensive road system linked north and south
4. Official runners carried messages; spread of Quecha language
2. Inca society and religion
1. Trade limited
1. Local barter in agricultural goods
2. Fewer specialized crafts
2. Inca society was also a hereditary aristocracy
1. Chief ruler viewed as descended from the sun, owned everything on earth
2. After death, mummified rulers became intermediaries with gods
3. Aristocrats enjoyed fine food, embroidered clothes, and wore ear spools
4. Priests led celibate and ascetic lives, very influential figures
3. Peasants worked the land and gave over a portion of their produce to the state
1. Besides supporting ruling classes, revenue also used for famine relief
2. Peasants also provided heavy labor for public works
4. Inca priests served the gods
1. Venerated sun god called Inti
2. Creator god, Viracocha
3. Ritual sacrifices practiced, but not of humans
4. Inca religion had a strong moral dimension: rewards and punishments
3. The societies of Oceania
1. The nomadic foragers of Australia
1. Nomadic, foraging societies; did not take up agriculture
1. Exchanged surplus food and small items during their seasonal migrations
2. Peoples on north coast had limited trade with mariners of New Guinea
2. Aboriginal culture and religious traditions
1. Intense concern with immediate environments
2. Stories and myths related to geographical features
2. The development of Pacific Island society
1. Trade between island groups such as Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji
2. Distant islands more isolated, especially eastern Pacific
3. Polynesian mariners took long voyages
1. Settled Easter Island about 300 C.E.
2. Reached west coast of South America
3. Brought back sweet potato, new staple crop in Polynesia
4. Settled Hawaiian Islands early centuries C.E.; also twelfth- and thirteenth-century voyages
4. Population growth on all larger Pacific islands
1. Result of diversified farming and fishing
2. Hawaii may have had five hundred thousand people in the late eighteenth century
3. On Easter Island, conflict and environmental degradation from overpopulation
5. More complex social and political structures
1. Sandeluer dynasty at Pohnpei in Carolina Islands, 1200-1600
2. Workers became more specialized; distinct classes emerged
3. Social classes: high chiefs, lesser chiefs, priests, commoners
6. Powerful chiefs created centralized states in Tonga and Hawaii
1. Ali'i nui: high chiefs of Hawaii
2. Chiefs allocated lands, organized men into military forces
7. In Polynesian religion, priests were intermediaries between gods and humans
1. Gods of war and agriculture were common
2. The marae Mahaiatea on Tahiti was a huge step pyramid for religious rituals

Chapter 21: Reaching Out: Expanding Horizons of Cross-Cultural Interaction

1. Long-distance trade and travel
1. Patterns of long-distance trade
1. Trading patterns between 1000 and 1500 in Eurasia
1. Luxury goods of high value traveled overland on the silk roads
2. Bulkier commodities traveled the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean
2. Trading cities and ports grew rapidly
1. Large trading cities had communities of foreign merchants
2. Cities like Melaka: orderly, strategically located, with reasonable custom fees
3. Mongol conquests in thirteenth century disrupted trade, but they later restored order
3. Marco Polo (1253-1324), Venetian traveler to Asia
1. Traveled to Mongol court of Khubilai Khan in China
2. Back to Venice in 1295 after seventeen years in China
3. Narrative of his travels a best-seller, inspiring many European merchants
2. Political and diplomatic travel
1. Mongol-Christian diplomacy across Eurasia in thirteenth century
1. Mongols and western Europeans, potential allies against Muslims
2. Pope Innocent IV's invitation to the Mongols to become Christians rejected
2. Rabban Sauma's mission to Europe, 1287
1. Sent by ilkan of Persia to win allies against Muslims
2. Met kings of France and England and the pope, but the mission failed
3. Ilkan Ghazan's conversion to Islam in 1295 ended possibility of alliance
3. Ibn Battuta (1304-1369)
1. A Moroccan Islamic scholar who served as qadi to the sultan of Delhi
2. Later served on Maldive Islands and traveled to east and west Africa
3. Consulted with Muslim rulers and offered advice on Islamic values
3. Missionary campaigns
1. Sufi missionaries (Muslim) visited recently conquered or converted lands
2. Christian missionaries in eastern Europe after 1000
3. John of Montecorvino: mission to convert the Mongols and Chinese, 1291-1328
1. The first archbishop of Khanbaliq (Beijing) in 1307
2. Translated the New Treatment; built several churches in China
3. Baptized some Mongol and Chinese boys, but won few converts
4. Long-distance travel and cross-cultural exchanges
1. Cultural exchanges included science, ideas, art, and music
2. New technology spread by travelers and facilitated their travel--for example, magnetic compass
3. New crops introduced to sub-Saharan Africa by Muslims: citrus fruits, rice, cotton
4. Sugarcane originated in southwest Asia and north Africa
1. Introduced to Europeans during the crusades
2. Sugarcane plantations spread all over the Mediterranean basin
3. Plantations operated through slave labor, Muslim captives, and Africans
5. Gunpowder technologies spread west from China by Mongol armies in thirteenth century
1. Used for catapults, primitive cannons
2. Changed warfare dramatically
2. Crisis and recovery
1. Bubonic plague
1. Plague in China
1. Crises of the fourteenth century: global climate cooled, declining productivity, famine
2. Bubonic plague began in southwest China, spread rapidly through interior
3. In 1331, 90 percent of population in Hebei province killed
4. Continued through 1350s, two-thirds of population killed in other provinces
2. Spread of plague west along trade routes
1. Reached Black Sea in 1346, Italy in 1347, and western Europe in 1348
2. Terrifying symptoms of the Black Death
3. Mortality: often 60 percent to 70 percent of population, sometimes whole villages
4. Scandinavia and India less effected; bypassed sub-Saharan Africa
3. Population decline
1. Chinese population dropped by 10 million from 1300 to 1400
2. European population dropped by about 25 percent
3. Islamic societies also devastated, slower to recover
4. Social and economic effects
1. Massive labor shortages led to social unrest
2. In western Europe, workers demanded higher wages
3. Authorities resisted change; peasant rebellions
2. Recovery in China: the Ming dynasty
1. Hongwu overthrew Mongol rule and established the Ming dynasty in 1368
2. Ming centralization of government and reviving of Chinese traditions
1. Reestablished Confucian educational and civil service systems
2. Emperor ruled China directly, without the aid of chief ministers
3. Mandarins and eunuchs maintained absolute authority of emperors
1. Mandarins represented central government to local authorities
2. Eunuchs in government could not build family fortunes
4. Ming dynasty promoted economic recovery
1. Repaired irrigation systems, agricultural productivity surged
2. Promoted manufacture of porcelain, silk, and cotton textiles
3. Trade within Asia flourished with increased production
5. Cultural revival
1. Actively promoted neo-Confucianism
2. Yongle Encyclopedia, massive anthology of Chinese cultural traditions
3. Recovery in western Europe: state building
1. Taxes and armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century
2. Italian city-states flourished with industries and trade
1. Each with independent administration and army
2. Levied direct taxes on citizens
3. France and England
1. Fought Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) over control of French lands
2. Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war
3. Asserted authority of central government over feudal nobility
4. Unlike France, England did not maintain a standing army
4. Spain united by the marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile
1. Sales tax supported a powerful standing army
2. Completed the reconquista by conquering Granada from Muslims
3. Seized southern Italy in 1494
4. Sponsored Columbus's quest for a western route to China
5. Competition among European states
1. Frequent small-scale wars
2. Encouraged new military and naval technology
3. Technological innovations vastly strengthened European armies
4. Recovery in western Europe: the Renaissance
1. Italian renaissance art
1. Renaissance, or rebirth of art and learning, 1400-1600
2. City-states sponsored innovations in art and architecture
3. Painters (Macaccio and Leonardo) used linear perspective to show depth
4. Sculptors (Donatello and Michelangelo) created natural poses
2. Renaissance architecture
1. Simple and elegant style, inherited from classical Greek and Roman
2. Magnificent domed cathedrals such as Brunelleschi's cathedral of Florence
3. Humanists drew inspiration from classical models
1. Scholars interested in literature, history, and moral philosophy
2. Recovered and translated many classical works
3. Exploration and colonization
1. The Chinese reconnaissance of the Indian Ocean basin
1. Zheng He's expeditions
1. Ming emperor permitted foreigners to trade at Quanzhou and Guangzhou
2. Refurbished the navy and sent seven large expeditions to the Indian Ocean basin
3. Purposes: to control foreign trade and impress foreign peoples
4. Admiral Zheng He's ships were the largest marine crafts in the world
5. Visited southeast Asia, India, Ceylon, Arabia, and east Africa
2. Chinese naval power
1. Zheng He's voyages diplomatic: exchanged gifts, envoys
2. Also military: used force to impress foreign powers, for example, against coastal pirates
3. Expeditions enhanced Chinese reputation in the Indian Ocean basin
3. End of the voyages, 1433
1. Confucian ministers mistrusted foreign alliances
2. Resources redirected to agriculture and defense of northern borders
3. Technology of building large ships was forgotten, nautical charts destroyed
2. European exploration in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
1. Portuguese exploration
1. European goals: to expand Christianity and commercial opportunities
2. Portuguese mariners emerged as the early leaders
3. Prince Henry of Portugal determined to increase Portuguese influence
4. Seized Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415
2. Colonization of the Atlantic Islands
1. Portuguese ventured into the Atlantic, colonized Madeiras, Azores, other islands
2. Italian investors, Portuguese landowners cultivated sugarcane on the islands
3. Slave trade expanded fifteenth century
1. Portuguese traders ventured down west coast of Africa
2. Traded guns, textiles for gold and slaves
3. Thousands of slaves delivered to Atlantic island plantations
4. Indian Ocean trade
1. Portuguese searched for sea route to Asian markets without Muslim intermediaries
2. Bartolomeu Dias reached Cape of Good Hope, entered the Indian Ocean, 1488
3. Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498, returned to Lisbon with huge profit
4. Portuguese mariners dominated trade between Europe and Asia, sixteenth century
5. Portuguese ships with cannons launched European imperialism in Asia
5. Cristoforo Colombo (Christopher Columbus) hoped to reach Asia by sailing west
1. Plan rejected by Portuguese king but sponsored by king and queen of Spain
2. 1492, led three ships to the Caribbean Sea, believed he was near Japan
3. Other mariners soon followed Columbus and explored American continents

Chapter 22: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections

1. The European reconnaissance of the world's oceans
1. Motives for exploration
1. Resource-poor Portugal searched for fresh resources
1. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century they ventured out onto Atlantic
2. Established sugar plantations in the Atlantic islands
2. The lure of direct trade without Muslim intermediaries
1. Asian spice trade
2. African gold, ivory, and slaves
3. Missionary efforts of European Christians
1. New Testament urged Christians to spread the faith throughout the world
2. Crusades and holy wars against Muslims in early centuries
3. Reconquista of Spain inspired Iberian crusaders
4. Various motives combined and reinforced each other
2. The technology of exploration enabled European mariners to travel offshore
1. Sternpost rudder and two types of sails enabled ships to advance against wind
2. Navigational instruments
1. Magnetic compass
2. Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)
3. Knowledge of winds and currents enabled Europeans to travel reliably
1. Trade winds north and south of the equator
2. Regular monsoons in Indian Ocean basin
3. The volta do mar
3. Voyages of exploration: From the Mediterranean to the Atlantic
1. Dom Henrique, king of Portugal, encouraged exploration of west Africa
1. Portuguese conquered Ceuta in north Africa in 1415
2. Soon after, established trading posts at Sao Jorge da Mina, west Africa
3. Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean, 1488
2. Vasco da Gama of Portugal
1. Crossed Indian Ocean; reached India, 1497; brought back huge profit
2. Portuguese merchants built a trading post at Calicut, 1500
3. Christopher Columbus, Genoese mariner
1. Proposed sailing to Asian markets by a western route
2. Sponsored by Catholic kings of Spain; sailed to Bahamas in 1492
4. Columbus's voyage enabled other mariners to link east and west hemispheres.
4. Voyages of exploration: from the Atlantic to the Pacific
1. Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator, in service of Spain
1. Crossed both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 1519-1522
2. One ship out of five completed the circumnavigation of the world
3. Magellan died in conflict in a Philippine island on the way home
2. Exploration of the Pacific took three centuries to complete
1. Trade route between the Philippines and Mexico, by Spanish merchants
2. English mariners searched for a northwest passage from Europe to Asia
3. Captain James Cook (1728-1779), British explorer
1. Led three expeditions to the Pacific, the Arctic, Australia; died in Hawaii
2. By late eighteenth century, Europeans had reasonably accurate geographical knowledge of the world
2. Trade and conflict in early modern Asia
1. Trading-post empires
1. Portuguese built more than fifty trading posts between west Africa and east Asia
2. Alfonso d'Alboquerque, sixteenth-century Portuguese commander in Indian Ocean
1. Seized Hormuz in 1508, Goa in 1510, and Melaka in 1511
2. Forced all merchant ships to purchase safe-conduct passes
3. Portuguese hegemony grew weak by the late sixteenth century
3. English and Dutch established parallel trading posts in Asian coasts
1. English in India, the Dutch at Cape Town and Indonesia
2. Sailed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships than Portuguese
3. Created an efficient commercial organization--the joint-stock company
4. Formation of powerful, profitable joint-stock companies
1. The English East India Company, founded in 1600
2. The United East India Company (VOC), Dutch company founded in 1602
3. Both were private enterprises, enjoyed government support, little oversight
2. European conquests in southeast Asia
1. Spanish conquest of the Philippines led by Legazpi, 1565
2. Manila, the bustling port city, became the Spanish capital
1. Spanish and Filipino residents massacred Chinese merchants by thousands
2. Christianity throughout the archipelago
3. Muslim resistance on southern island of Mindanao
3. Conquest of Java by the Dutch
1. Began with VOC trading city of Batavia in 1619
2. Policy: secure VOC monopoly over spice production and trade
3. Enormous monopoly profit led to prosperity of Netherlands, seventeenth century
3. Commercial rivalries and the Seven Years' War
1. Global competition and conflict
1. Dutch forces expelled most Portuguese merchants from southeast Asia
2. Conflict between English and French merchants over control of Indian cotton and tea from Ceylon, early eighteenth century
3. Competition in the Americas among English, French, and Spanish forces
2. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
1. In Europe: British and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia
2. In India: fighting between British and French forces, each with local allies
3. In the Caribbean: Spanish and French united to limit British expansion
4. In North America: fights between British and French forces
3. Outcome: British hegemony
1. British gained control of India, Canada, Florida
2. In Europe, Prussian armies held off massive armies of the enemies
3. War paved the way for the British empire in the nineteenth century
3. Global exchanges
1. The Columbian Exchange
1. Biological exchanges between Old and New Worlds
1. Columbian Exchange--global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, and disease pathogens after Columbus's voyages
2. Permanently altered the earth's environment
2. Epidemic diseases--smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and influenza--led to staggering population losses
1. Smallpox reduced Aztec population by 95 percent in one century after 1519
2. Contagious diseases had same horrifying effects in the Pacific islands
3. Between 1500 and 1800, one hundred million people died of imported diseases
3. New foods and domestic animals
1. Wheat, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens went to Americas
2. American crops included maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts
3. Growth of world population: from 425 million in 1500 to 900 million in 1800
4. Migration of human populations
1. Enslaved Africans were largest group of migrants from 1500 to 1800
2. Sizable migration from Europe to the Americas
3. Nineteenth century, European migration to South Africa, Australia, and Pacific Islands
2. The origins of global trade
1. Transoceanic trade: European merchants created a genuinely global trading system of supply and demand, linking the ports of the world
2. The Manila galleons
1. Sleek, fast, heavily armed ships that sailed between Manila and Mexico
2. Asian luxury goods to Mexico, silver from Mexico to China